With further observation, I detect that the content of /run/systemd/boot-status/ (supposed to be filled by /usr/lib/startup/get-initial-bootstate, launched with initial-bootstate.service) will be deleted if a larger SD card is installed during boot time, and autologin@.service will fail due to lack /run/systemd/boot-status/bootstate.

At this point, I can manually restart initial-bootstate.service and start-user-session.service sequentially via SSH to launch the GUI.

Current I cannot trace which program deletes the content of /run/systemd/boot-status/. Does anyone have any idea about how to walkaround this?